Physics:Quantum A Matter Of Size - Revision history

WikiHarold: Restore missing Quantum reference definitions

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	This article is based on Wikipedia articles and other sources.The objective is to explain how "sizes" are used in Quantum Mechanics (QM). Often sizes in quantum mechanics are probabilistic, with particles not having a fixed size, but a size that depends on factors like wavelength or boundary condition.		This article is based on Wikipedia articles and other sources.The objective is to explain how "sizes" are used in Quantum Mechanics (QM). Often sizes in quantum mechanics are probabilistic, with particles not having a fixed size, but a size that depends on factors like wavelength or boundary condition.

	An electronic device miniaturized from macroscopic to mesoscopic dimensions (see also Carlo Beenakker) behaves differently as a consequence of quantum coherence. Macroscopic wire shows a smooth increase in electrical conductance with thickness, but a wire at mesoscopic scale exhibits quantized conductance, increasing in discrete steps rather than continuously. Research in this area uses both experimental measurements and theoretical models to explore transport phenomena in insulators, semiconductors, metals, and superconductors. The field also has applications in the engineering of nanoscale electronic components.<ref name=Meso-1/><ref name=Meso-2/><br><br>Important for mesoscopic physics is that the physical properties of materials—mechanical, chemical, and electrical—change significantly during miniaturization. Objects shrink toward the nanoscale, the fraction of atoms located at the surface becomes large enough to influence behavior. In contrast, for conventional bulk materials larger than about one micrometre, surface effects are negligible compared to the total number of atoms. Mesoscopic research focuses on metallic or semiconducting structures produced using nanofabrication and microelectronic techniques.<ref name=Meso-1/><ref name=Meso-2/>		An electronic device miniaturized from macroscopic to mesoscopic dimensions (see also Carlo Beenakker) behaves differently as a consequence of quantum coherence. Macroscopic wire shows a smooth increase in electrical conductance with thickness, but a wire at mesoscopic scale exhibits quantized conductance, increasing in discrete steps rather than continuously. Research in this area uses both experimental measurements and theoretical models to explore transport phenomena in insulators, semiconductors, metals, and superconductors. The field also has applications in the engineering of nanoscale electronic components.<ref name=Meso-1>{{cite encyclopedia \|title=Sci-Tech Dictionary \|encyclopedia=McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms \|year=2003 \|publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.}}</ref><ref name=Meso-2/><br><br>Important for mesoscopic physics is that the physical properties of materials—mechanical, chemical, and electrical—change significantly during miniaturization. Objects shrink toward the nanoscale, the fraction of atoms located at the surface becomes large enough to influence behavior. In contrast, for conventional bulk materials larger than about one micrometre, surface effects are negligible compared to the total number of atoms. Mesoscopic research focuses on metallic or semiconducting structures produced using nanofabrication and microelectronic techniques.<ref name=Meso-1/><ref name=Meso-2/>

	There is no single precise size boundary that defines a mesoscopic system; it typically refers to structures ranging from about 100 nm (the size of a small virus) up to around 1,000 nm (the size of a bacterium), with 100 nm often regarded as the upper size limit for a nanoparticle. Mesoscopic physics is related to nanotechnology and nanoscale device engineering. Three common types of phenomena in mesoscopic systems include quantum interference, quantum confinement, and electron charging effects.<ref name="Meso-1" /><ref name="Meso-2">"Mesoscopic physics." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Jan 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoscopic-physics-1		There is no single precise size boundary that defines a mesoscopic system; it typically refers to structures ranging from about 100 nm (the size of a small virus) up to around 1,000 nm (the size of a bacterium), with 100 nm often regarded as the upper size limit for a nanoparticle. Mesoscopic physics is related to nanotechnology and nanoscale device engineering. Three common types of phenomena in mesoscopic systems include quantum interference, quantum confinement, and electron charging effects.<ref name="Meso-1" /><ref name="Meso-2">"Mesoscopic physics." McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005. Answers.com 25 Jan 2010. http://www.answers.com/topic/mesoscopic-physics-1
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	== References ==		= References =
	{{Reflist\|3}}		{{Reflist\|3}}

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	== Theory ==		== Theory ==
	~~{{Quantum mechanics}}~~
	A quantum (plural quanta) is the smallest discrete unit of a physical property, such as energy, light, or angular momentum. For example, a photon is a quantum of light.		A quantum (plural quanta) is the smallest discrete unit of a physical property, such as energy, light, or angular momentum. For example, a photon is a quantum of light.

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	{{#invoke:PhysicsQC\|tocHeadingAndList\|Physics:Quantum basics/See also}}		{{#invoke:PhysicsQC\|tocHeadingAndList\|Physics:Quantum basics/See also}}
	~~[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]~~
	~~[[Category:Physics]]~~

	== References ==		== References ==
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	{{Author\|Harold Foppele}}		{{Author\|Harold Foppele}}
	~~[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]~~
	~~[[Category:Physics]]~~

	{{Sourceattribution\|Physics:Quantum A Matter Of Size\|1}}		{{Sourceattribution\|Physics:Quantum A Matter Of Size\|1}}

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	'''A Matter Of Size''' ~~is a Book I topic in the Quantum Collection. Approach~~ to Mesoscopic Physics: Quantum Size Effects Mesoscopic physics is a field within condensed matter physics that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the nanoscale of individual atoms or molecules and the micrometre scale of bulk materials. Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by quantum mechanical effects rather than being fully described by classical physics. Mesoscopic physics is a field within condensed matter physics that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the nanoscale of individual atoms or molecules and the micrometre scale of bulk materials. Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by quantum mechanical effects rather than being fully described by classical physics.		'''A Matter Of Size''' approach to Mesoscopic Physics: Quantum Size Effects Mesoscopic physics is a field within condensed matter physics that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the nanoscale of individual atoms or molecules and the micrometre scale of bulk materials. Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by quantum mechanical effects rather than being fully described by classical physics. Mesoscopic physics is a field within condensed matter physics that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the nanoscale of individual atoms or molecules and the micrometre scale of bulk materials. Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by quantum mechanical effects rather than being fully described by classical physics. This article is based on Wikipedia articles and other sources.The objective is to explain how "sizes" are used in Quantum Mechanics (QM).
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	~~<br>~~		'''A Matter Of Size''' is a Book I topic in the Quantum Collection. Approach to Mesoscopic Physics: Quantum Size Effects Mesoscopic physics is a field within condensed matter physics that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the nanoscale of individual atoms or molecules and the micrometre scale of bulk materials. Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by quantum mechanical effects rather than being fully described by classical physics. Mesoscopic physics is a field within condensed matter physics that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the nanoscale of individual atoms or molecules and the micrometre scale of bulk materials. Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by quantum mechanical effects rather than being fully described by classical physics.
	'''Approach to Mesoscopic Physics: Quantum Size Effects~~'''~~
	~~'''~~Mesoscopic physics~~'''~~ is a field within ~~[[Wikipedia:condensed matter physics\|~~condensed matter physics]] that describes systems whose dimensions are intermediate between the ~~[[Wikipedia:nanoscopic scale\|~~nanoscale]] of individual ~~[[Wikipedia:atom\|~~atoms]] or ~~[[Wikipedia:molecule\|~~molecules]] and the ~~[[Wikipedia:micrometre\|~~micrometre]] scale of bulk materials.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Muller\|first1=M. \|last2=Katsov\|first2=K. \|last3=Schick\|first3=M. \|date=November 2006 \|title=Biological and synthetic membranes: What can be learned from a coarse-grained description? \|journal=Physics Reports \|volume=434 \|issue=5–6 \|pages=113–176 \|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2006.08.003 \|issn=0370-1573 \|arxiv=cond-mat/0609295 \|bibcode=2006PhR...434..113M \|s2cid=16012275}}</ref> Systems large enough to contain many atoms, yet still small enough so that the motion of particles is influenced by ~~[[Wikipedia:quantum mechanics\|~~quantum mechanical]] effects rather than being fully described by ~~[[Wikipedia:classical mechanics\|~~classical physics]].~~<ref name=Meso-1>{{cite encyclopedia \|title=Sci-Tech Dictionary \|encyclopedia=McGraw-Hill Dictionary~~ of ~~Scientific~~ and ~~Technical Terms \|year=2003 \|publisher=[[Wikipedia:S&P Global\|McGraw-Hill Companies~~, ~~Inc~~.~~]]}}</ref><ref name=Meso-2/>~~
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	== Quantum Tunneling ==		== Quantum Tunneling ==
	[[File:~~Quantum-tunneling~~.~~svg~~\|thumb\|Quantum-tunneling]]		[[File:Quantum_book1_a_matter_of_size_yellow.png\|thumb\|Quantum-tunneling]]
	[[Wikipedia:Quantum tunnelling\|Tunneling]] is directly related to the wave nature of matter.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Griffiths \|first=David J. \|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics \|edition=2nd \|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall \|year=2005 \|isbn=978-0131118928}}</ref> Quantum tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which particles, such as electrons or protons as [[Wikipedia:Wave packet\|wave packets]], can pass through [[Wikipedia:Rectangular potential barrier\|potential energy barriers]] even when they do not have enough classical energy to overcome them.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Gamow \|first=G. \|title=Zur Quantentheorie des Atomkernes \|journal=Zeitschrift für Physik \|volume=51 \|pages=204–212 \|year=1928 \|doi=10.1007/BF01343196}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last=Fowler \|first=R. H. \|last2=Nordheim \|first2=L. \|title=Electron emission in intense electric fields \|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A \|volume=119 \|pages=173–181 \|year=1928 \|doi=10.1098/rspa.1928.0091}}</ref> In classical mechanics, this would be impossible. Low-mass particles are most likely to tunnel, and the probability decreases rapidly with increasing particle mass or barrier width.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Cohen-Tannoudji \|first=Claude \|last2=Diu \|first2=Bernard \|last3=Laloë \|first3=Frank \|title=Quantum Mechanics \|publisher=Wiley \|year=1977 \|isbn=978-0471164333}}</ref> For electrons, tunneling can be significant through barriers with thicknesses of about 1–3 nm, while for protons or hydrogen atoms, it is typically only observable for much thinner barriers, around ≤0.1 nm.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Hänggi \|first=P. \|last2=Talkner \|first2=P. \|last3=Borkovec \|first3=M. \|title=Reaction-rate theory: fifty years after Kramers \|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics \|volume=62 \|issue=2 \|pages=251–341 \|year=1990 \|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.62.251}}</ref> The principle of tunneling leads to the development of [[Wikipedia:Scanning tunneling microscope\|Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)]] which had a serious impact on chemical, biological and material science research.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Binnig \|first=G. \|last2=Rohrer \|first2=H. \|title=Scanning tunneling microscopy \|journal=Surface Science \|volume=126 \|pages=236–244 \|year=1983 \|url=https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.57}}</ref>		[[Wikipedia:Quantum tunnelling\|Tunneling]] is directly related to the wave nature of matter.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Griffiths \|first=David J. \|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics \|edition=2nd \|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall \|year=2005 \|isbn=978-0131118928}}</ref> Quantum tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which particles, such as electrons or protons as [[Wikipedia:Wave packet\|wave packets]], can pass through [[Wikipedia:Rectangular potential barrier\|potential energy barriers]] even when they do not have enough classical energy to overcome them.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Gamow \|first=G. \|title=Zur Quantentheorie des Atomkernes \|journal=Zeitschrift für Physik \|volume=51 \|pages=204–212 \|year=1928 \|doi=10.1007/BF01343196}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last=Fowler \|first=R. H. \|last2=Nordheim \|first2=L. \|title=Electron emission in intense electric fields \|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A \|volume=119 \|pages=173–181 \|year=1928 \|doi=10.1098/rspa.1928.0091}}</ref> In classical mechanics, this would be impossible. Low-mass particles are most likely to tunnel, and the probability decreases rapidly with increasing particle mass or barrier width.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Cohen-Tannoudji \|first=Claude \|last2=Diu \|first2=Bernard \|last3=Laloë \|first3=Frank \|title=Quantum Mechanics \|publisher=Wiley \|year=1977 \|isbn=978-0471164333}}</ref> For electrons, tunneling can be significant through barriers with thicknesses of about 1–3 nm, while for protons or hydrogen atoms, it is typically only observable for much thinner barriers, around ≤0.1 nm.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Hänggi \|first=P. \|last2=Talkner \|first2=P. \|last3=Borkovec \|first3=M. \|title=Reaction-rate theory: fifty years after Kramers \|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics \|volume=62 \|issue=2 \|pages=251–341 \|year=1990 \|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.62.251}}</ref> The principle of tunneling leads to the development of [[Wikipedia:Scanning tunneling microscope\|Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)]] which had a serious impact on chemical, biological and material science research.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Binnig \|first=G. \|last2=Rohrer \|first2=H. \|title=Scanning tunneling microscopy \|journal=Surface Science \|volume=126 \|pages=236–244 \|year=1983 \|url=https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.57}}</ref>

	== Planck length ==		== Planck length ==
	[[File:~~Triangle of everything simplified 2 triangle of everything - Planck Units~~.png \| thumb\|upright=0.8 \| A mass–radius log plot of various objects]]		[[File:Quantum_book1_a_matter_of_size_yellow.png\| thumb\|upright=0.8 \| A mass–radius log plot of various objects]]
	The [[Wikipedia:Planck length\|Planck length]](<math>\ell_P</math>) is often considered the smallest meaningful length in physics, obtained by combining quantum mechanics, relativity, and gravity:		The [[Wikipedia:Planck length\|Planck length]](<math>\ell_P</math>) is often considered the smallest meaningful length in physics, obtained by combining quantum mechanics, relativity, and gravity:
	<math>		<math>
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	* Quantum mechanics = the set of rules and equations that describe how they behave.		* Quantum mechanics = the set of rules and equations that describe how they behave.

	Quantum Science consist of Quantum physics (QP) and Quantum mechanics (QM) describing the behaviour of matter and light at the atomic and subatomic scale.<ref name="Griffiths2018">{{Cite book \|last=Griffiths \|first=David J. \|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|year=2018 \|isbn=978-1107189638 \|edition=3rd \|location=Cambridge}}</ref> These phenomena underlie technologies such as [[Wikipedia:Semiconductor\|semiconductors]], [[Wikipedia:Laser\|lasers]], and [[Wikipedia:Solar cell\|solar cells]], and form the basis of developing fields including ~~[[Quantum computing\|~~quantum computing]] and [[Wikipedia:Quantum sensor\|quantum sensing]].<ref name="DowlingMilburn2003">{{Cite journal \|last1=Dowling \|first1=Jonathan P. \|last2=Milburn \|first2=Gerard J. \|year=2003 \|title=Quantum technology: the second quantum revolution \|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2003.1227 \|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A \|volume=361 \|issue=1809 \|pages=1655–1674 \|doi=10.1098/rsta.2003.1227 \|pmid=12952679 \|bibcode=2003RSPTA.361.1655D }}</ref>		Quantum Science consist of Quantum physics (QP) and Quantum mechanics (QM) describing the behaviour of matter and light at the atomic and subatomic scale.<ref name="Griffiths2018">{{Cite book \|last=Griffiths \|first=David J. \|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|year=2018 \|isbn=978-1107189638 \|edition=3rd \|location=Cambridge}}</ref> These phenomena underlie technologies such as [[Wikipedia:Semiconductor\|semiconductors]], [[Wikipedia:Laser\|lasers]], and [[Wikipedia:Solar cell\|solar cells]], and form the basis of developing fields including quantum computing and [[Wikipedia:Quantum sensor\|quantum sensing]].<ref name="DowlingMilburn2003">{{Cite journal \|last1=Dowling \|first1=Jonathan P. \|last2=Milburn \|first2=Gerard J. \|year=2003 \|title=Quantum technology: the second quantum revolution \|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2003.1227 \|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A \|volume=361 \|issue=1809 \|pages=1655–1674 \|doi=10.1098/rsta.2003.1227 \|pmid=12952679 \|bibcode=2003RSPTA.361.1655D }}</ref>

	=See also=		=See also=

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