Physics:Quantum Matter Elements and Particles - Revision history

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	===How many different Elements and Particles Exist?===		===How many different Elements and Particles Exist?===
	[[File:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg\|thumb\|~~[[Wikipedia:~~Hydrogen~~\|Hydrogen]]~~ in its plasma state is the most abundant ordinary matter in the universe.]]		[[File:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg\|thumb\|Hydrogen in its plasma state is the most abundant ordinary matter in the universe.]]
	The universe is made of tiny building blocks, known as particles. These particles combine to form atoms, molecules, and matter. Elements contain only one type of atom. There are 118 known chemical elements, each with properties and atomic structure.<ref name="IUPAC"/> Atoms are made of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.<ref name="Fermilab"/> Protons and neutrons are made of quarks, which are matter particles.<ref name="PDG"/> The Standard Model of physics includes all known fundamental particles and the forces between them.<ref name="CERN"/> Composite particles, such as hadrons and mesons, are formed from combinations of quarks.<ref name="PDG"/> By studying these particles scientists find the structure, behavior, and evolution of the universe.		The universe is made of tiny building blocks, known as particles. These particles combine to form atoms, molecules, and matter. Elements contain only one type of atom. There are 118 known chemical elements, each with properties and atomic structure.<ref name="IUPAC"/> Atoms are made of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.<ref name="Fermilab"/> Protons and neutrons are made of quarks, which are matter particles.<ref name="PDG"/> The Standard Model of physics includes all known fundamental particles and the forces between them.<ref name="CERN"/> Composite particles, such as hadrons and mesons, are formed from combinations of quarks.<ref name="PDG"/> By studying these particles scientists find the structure, behavior, and evolution of the universe.

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	== 5.2 Tachyon ==		== 5.2 Tachyon ==
	[[File:Faster than light implies time travel diagram.svg\|thumb\|upright=1\|~~[[Wikipedia:~~Spacetime diagram~~\|Spacetime diagram]]~~ showing that moving faster than light implies time travel in the context of special relativity. A spaceship departs from Earth from A to C slower than light. At B, Earth emits a tachyon, which travels faster than light but forward in time in Earth's reference frame. It reaches the spaceship at C. The spaceship then sends another tachyon back to Earth from C to D. This tachyon also travels forward in time in the spaceship's reference frame. This effectively allows Earth to send a signal from B to D, back in time.]]		[[File:Faster than light implies time travel diagram.svg\|thumb\|upright=1\|Spacetime diagram showing that moving faster than light implies time travel in the context of special relativity. A spaceship departs from Earth from A to C slower than light. At B, Earth emits a tachyon, which travels faster than light but forward in time in Earth's reference frame. It reaches the spaceship at C. The spaceship then sends another tachyon back to Earth from C to D. This tachyon also travels forward in time in the spaceship's reference frame. This effectively allows Earth to send a signal from B to D, back in time.]]
	* This section is about hypothetical faster-than-light particles. For quantum fields with imaginary mass, see tachyonic fields.		* This section is about hypothetical faster-than-light particles. For quantum fields with imaginary mass, see tachyonic fields.

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	<div>		<div>
	{{Navbox		{{Navbox
	~~\| name = MatterLevels~~
	\| title = Levels of Matter		\| title = Levels of Matter
	\| state = expanded		\| state = expanded

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	== 2.1 All known elements==		== 2.1 All known elements==

	~~{{Quantum mechanics}}~~

	<div style="column-count:3; font-size=45%;">		<div style="column-count:3; font-size=45%;">
	Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Neon, Sodium, Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Chlorine, Argon, Potassium, Calcium, Scandium, Titanium, Vanadium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, Zinc, Gallium, Germanium, Arsenic, Selenium, Bromine, Krypton, Rubidium, Strontium, Yttrium, Zirconium, Niobium, Molybdenum, Technetium, Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium, Silver, Cadmium, Indium, Tin, Antimony, Tellurium, Iodine, Xenon, Cesium, Barium, Lanthanides, Hafnium, Tantalum, Tungsten, Rhenium, Osmium, Iridium, Platinum, Gold, Mercury, Thallium, Lead, Bismuth, Polonium, Astatine, Radon, Francium, Radium, Actinides, Rutherfordium, Dubnium, Seaborgium, Bohrium, Hassium, Meitnerium, Darmstadtium, Roentgenium, Copernicium, Nihonium, Flerovium, Moscovium, Livermorium, Tennessine, Oganesson<ref name="IUPAC"/>		Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Neon, Sodium, Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Chlorine, Argon, Potassium, Calcium, Scandium, Titanium, Vanadium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, Zinc, Gallium, Germanium, Arsenic, Selenium, Bromine, Krypton, Rubidium, Strontium, Yttrium, Zirconium, Niobium, Molybdenum, Technetium, Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium, Silver, Cadmium, Indium, Tin, Antimony, Tellurium, Iodine, Xenon, Cesium, Barium, Lanthanides, Hafnium, Tantalum, Tungsten, Rhenium, Osmium, Iridium, Platinum, Gold, Mercury, Thallium, Lead, Bismuth, Polonium, Astatine, Radon, Francium, Radium, Actinides, Rutherfordium, Dubnium, Seaborgium, Bohrium, Hassium, Meitnerium, Darmstadtium, Roentgenium, Copernicium, Nihonium, Flerovium, Moscovium, Livermorium, Tennessine, Oganesson<ref name="IUPAC"/>
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	\|-		\|-
	\|rowspan="4"\| 0		\|rowspan="4"\| 0
	\| 0 \|\| − \|\| 0 \|\| 0{{sup\|−}}		\| 0 \|\| − \|\| 0 \|\| 0<sup>−</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\| 1 \|\| + \|\| 1 \|\| 1{{sup\|+}}		\| 1 \|\| + \|\| 1 \|\| 1<sup>+</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\| 2 \|\| − \|\| 2 \|\| 2{{sup\|−}}		\| 2 \|\| − \|\| 2 \|\| 2<sup>−</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\| 3 \|\| + \|\| 3 \|\| 3{{sup\|+}}		\| 3 \|\| + \|\| 3 \|\| 3<sup>+</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\|rowspan="4"\| 1		\|rowspan="4"\| 1
	\| 0 \|\| − \|\| 1 \|\| 1{{sup\|−}}		\| 0 \|\| − \|\| 1 \|\| 1<sup>−</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\| 1 \|\| + \|\| 2, 0 \|\| 2{{sup\|+}}, 0{{sup\|+}}		\| 1 \|\| + \|\| 2, 0 \|\| 2<sup>+</sup>, 0<sup>+</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\| 2 \|\| − \|\| 3, 1 \|\| 3{{sup\|−}}, 1{{sup\|−}}		\| 2 \|\| − \|\| 3, 1 \|\| 3<sup>−</sup>, 1<sup>−</sup>
	\|-		\|-
	\| 3 \|\| + \|\| 4, 2 \|\| 4{{sup\|+}}, 2{{sup\|+}}		\| 3 \|\| + \|\| 4, 2 \|\| 4<sup>+</sup>, 2<sup>+</sup>
	\|}		\|}
	</div>		</div>
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	</div>		</div>
	{{Author\|Harold Foppele}}		{{Author\|Harold Foppele}}
	~~[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]~~
	~~[[Category:Particle physics]]~~

	{{Sourceattribution\|Physics:Quantum Matter Elements and Particles\|1}}		{{Sourceattribution\|Physics:Quantum Matter Elements and Particles\|1}}

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	[[File:TQ EB ape hyp r1 8 r2 14 Act 3D Sim.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|upright=1.2\|Colour flux tubes produced by four static quark and antiquark charges, computed in lattice QCD.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2008-04-13 \|title=The charming case of X(3872) (APS April 2008) {{!}} symmetry magazine \|url=https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/breaking/2008/04/13/the-charming-case-of-x3872?language_content_entity=und \|access-date=2023-11-09 \|website=www.symmetrymagazine.org \|language=en}}</ref> Confinement in quantum chromodynamics leads to the production of flux tubes connecting colour charges. The flux tubes act as attractive QCD string-like potentials.]]		[[File:TQ EB ape hyp r1 8 r2 14 Act 3D Sim.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|upright=1.2\|Colour flux tubes produced by four static quark and antiquark charges, computed in lattice QCD.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2008-04-13 \|title=The charming case of X(3872) (APS April 2008) {{!}} symmetry magazine \|url=https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/breaking/2008/04/13/the-charming-case-of-x3872?language_content_entity=und \|access-date=2023-11-09 \|website=www.symmetrymagazine.org \|language=en}}</ref> Confinement in quantum chromodynamics leads to the production of flux tubes connecting colour charges. The flux tubes act as attractive QCD string-like potentials.]]
	<br>		<br>



	A '''pentaquark''' is a subatomic particle, consisting of four quarks and one antiquark bound together. Evidence for the existence of pentaquarks has been found. As quarks have a baryon number of {{sfrac\|+\|1\|3}}, and antiquarks of {{sfrac\|−\|1\|3}}, the pentaquark would have a total baryon number of 1, and thus would be a baryon. Further, because it has five quarks instead of the usual three found in regular baryons (A.k.a. "triquarks"), it is classified as an exotic baryon. The name pentaquark was coined by Claude Gignoux ''et al.'' (1987)<ref> {{cite journal \|last1=Gignoux \|first1=C. \|last2=Silvestre-Brac \|first2=B. \|last3=Richard \|first3=J.M. \|date=1987-07-16 \|title=Possibility of stable multiquark baryons \|journal=Physics Letters B \|volume=193 \|issue=2 \|pages=323–326 \|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(87)91244-5 \|bibcode=1987PhLB..193..323G }} </ref> and Harry J. Lipkin in 1987; however, the possibility of five-quark particles was identified as early as 1964 when Murray Gell-Mann first postulated the existence of quarks. Although predicted for decades, pentaquarks proved surprisingly difficult to discover and some physicists were beginning to suspect that an unknown law of nature prevented their production.		A '''pentaquark''' is a subatomic particle, consisting of four quarks and one antiquark bound together. Evidence for the existence of pentaquarks has been found. As quarks have a baryon number of {{sfrac\|+\|1\|3}}, and antiquarks of {{sfrac\|−\|1\|3}}, the pentaquark would have a total baryon number of 1, and thus would be a baryon. Further, because it has five quarks instead of the usual three found in regular baryons (A.k.a. "triquarks"), it is classified as an exotic baryon. The name pentaquark was coined by Claude Gignoux ''et al.'' (1987)<ref> {{cite journal \|last1=Gignoux \|first1=C. \|last2=Silvestre-Brac \|first2=B. \|last3=Richard \|first3=J.M. \|date=1987-07-16 \|title=Possibility of stable multiquark baryons \|journal=Physics Letters B \|volume=193 \|issue=2 \|pages=323–326 \|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(87)91244-5 \|bibcode=1987PhLB..193..323G }} </ref> and Harry J. Lipkin in 1987; however, the possibility of five-quark particles was identified as early as 1964 when Murray Gell-Mann first postulated the existence of quarks. Although predicted for decades, pentaquarks proved surprisingly difficult to discover and some physicists were beginning to suspect that an unknown law of nature prevented their production.

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	{{Quantum book backlink\|Mathematical structure and systems}}		{{Quantum book backlink\|Mathematical structure and systems}}
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	{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}		{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}

	{{Quantum book backlink\|Mathematical structure and systems}}		{{Quantum book backlink\|Mathematical structure and systems}}
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	{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}~~Book I~~		{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}

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	~~~~{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}		{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}Book I

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	The name ''tachyon'' originates from a 1967 paper by Gerald Feinberg, who studied quantum-field excitations with an imaginary mass. Later research showed that these excitations do not correspond to real faster-than-light particles, though physicists still use the term “tachyon” in contexts such as tachyon condensation, where it refers to unstable or imaginary-mass fields rather than actual particles.<br>		The name ''tachyon'' originates from a 1967 paper by Gerald Feinberg, who studied quantum-field excitations with an imaginary mass. Later research showed that these excitations do not correspond to real faster-than-light particles, though physicists still use the term “tachyon” in contexts such as tachyon condensation, where it refers to unstable or imaginary-mass fields rather than actual particles.<br>
	As noted by [[Albert Einstein]], [[Wikipedia:Richard C. Tolman\|Richard C. Tolman]], [[special relativity]] implies that faster-than-light particles, if they existed, [[Wikipedia:Tachyonic antitelephone\|could be used to communicate backwards in time]].<ref>Benford, G.; Book, D.; Newcomb, W. (1970). "The Tachyonic Antitelephone". Physical Review D, 2(2): 263–265. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.2.263.</ref>		As noted by Albert Einstein, [[Wikipedia:Richard C. Tolman\|Richard C. Tolman]], [[special relativity]] implies that faster-than-light particles, if they existed, [[Wikipedia:Tachyonic antitelephone\|could be used to communicate backwards in time]].<ref>Benford, G.; Book, D.; Newcomb, W. (1970). "The Tachyonic Antitelephone". Physical Review D, 2(2): 263–265. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.2.263.</ref>

	== 6. Graph Example ==		== 6. Graph Example ==
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	\|}		\|}
	===8.1 Electron===		===8.1 Electron===
	[[File:~~Electron-orbital-magnetic-moment-simplified~~.~~svg~~\|thumb\|Electron-orbital-magnetic-moment-simplified]]		[[File:Quantum_book1_matter_elements_and_particles_yellow.png\|thumb\|Electron-orbital-magnetic-moment-simplified]]
	The electron <math>e^-</math>, or <math>\beta^-</math> in nuclear reactions is a negatively charged [[Wikipedia:subatomic particle\|subatomic particle]] and an [[Wikipedia:elementary particle\|elementary particle]] that, with [[Wikipedia:up quark\|up quark]]s and [[Wikipedia:down quark\|down quark]]s, forms ordinary matter.<br>		The electron <math>e^-</math>, or <math>\beta^-</math> in nuclear reactions is a negatively charged [[Wikipedia:subatomic particle\|subatomic particle]] and an [[Wikipedia:elementary particle\|elementary particle]] that, with [[Wikipedia:up quark\|up quark]]s and [[Wikipedia:down quark\|down quark]]s, forms ordinary matter.<br>
	Electrons are very light and occupy [[Wikipedia:atomic orbital\|orbitals]] around a [[Wikipedia:atomic nucleus\|atomic nucleus]]. Their arrangement defines an atom’s [[Wikipedia:chemical properties\|chemical properties]], with outer [[Wikipedia:valence electron\|valence electron]] forming [[Wikipedia:chemical bond\|chemical bond]]s and driving [[Wikipedia:chemical reaction\|chemical reaction]]s, while inner electrons make up the [[Wikipedia:atomic core\|atomic core]].		Electrons are very light and occupy [[Wikipedia:atomic orbital\|orbitals]] around a [[Wikipedia:atomic nucleus\|atomic nucleus]]. Their arrangement defines an atom’s [[Wikipedia:chemical properties\|chemical properties]], with outer [[Wikipedia:valence electron\|valence electron]] forming [[Wikipedia:chemical bond\|chemical bond]]s and driving [[Wikipedia:chemical reaction\|chemical reaction]]s, while inner electrons make up the [[Wikipedia:atomic core\|atomic core]].
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	===8.3 Photon===		===8.3 Photon===
	[[File:~~Photon model~~.png\|thumb\|Photon_model]]		[[File:Quantum_book1_matter_elements_and_particles_yellow.png\|thumb\|Photon_model]]
	A photon (Greek φωτός), [[Wikipedia:light\|light]] is an [[Wikipedia:elementary particle\|elementary particle]] that is a [[Wikipedia:quantum\|quantum]] of the [[Wikipedia:electromagnetic field\|electromagnetic field]], including [[Wikipedia:electromagnetic radiation\|electromagnetic radiation]] such as [[Wikipedia:light\|light]] and [[Wikipedia:radio wave\|radio wave]]s, and the [[Wikipedia:force carrier\|force carrier]] for the [[Wikipedia:electromagnetic force\|electromagnetic force]].<br>		A photon (Greek φωτός), [[Wikipedia:light\|light]] is an [[Wikipedia:elementary particle\|elementary particle]] that is a [[Wikipedia:quantum\|quantum]] of the [[Wikipedia:electromagnetic field\|electromagnetic field]], including [[Wikipedia:electromagnetic radiation\|electromagnetic radiation]] such as [[Wikipedia:light\|light]] and [[Wikipedia:radio wave\|radio wave]]s, and the [[Wikipedia:force carrier\|force carrier]] for the [[Wikipedia:electromagnetic force\|electromagnetic force]].<br>
	Photons are [[Wikipedia:massless particle\|massless]] and can move only at one speed: the <math>c</math>, the [[Wikipedia:speed of light\|speed of light]] in vacuum. The photon belongs to the class of [[Wikipedia:boson\|boson]] particles.<br>The photon has no [[Wikipedia:electric charge\|electric charge]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Frisch \|first1=David H. \|title=Elementary Particles \|last2=Thorndike \|first2=Alan M. \|publisher=[[Wikipedia:David Van Nostrand\|David Van Nostrand]] \|year=1964 \|location=Princeton, New Jersey \|page=22 \|language=en-us \|author1-link=W:David H. Frisch}}</ref><ref name="chargeless">{{cite journal \|last1=Kobychev \|first1=V. V. \|last2=Popov \|first2=S. B. \|year=2005 \|title=Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources \|journal=[[Wikipedia:Astronomy Letters\|Astronomy Letters]] \|volume=31 \|issue=3 \|pages=147–151 \|arxiv=hep-ph/0411398 \|bibcode=2005AstL...31..147K \|doi=10.1134/1.1883345 \|s2cid=119409823}}</ref> is generally considered to have zero [[Wikipedia:rest mass\|rest mass]],<ref>{{cite web \|first=John \|last=Baez \|author-link=W:John Baez \|title=What is the mass of a photon? \|publisher=[[Wikipedia:University of California, Riverside\|U.C. Riverside]] \|type=pers. academic site \|url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/photon_mass.html \|access-date=2009-01-13 \|archive-date=2014-05-31 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531100537/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/photon_mass.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> and is a [[Wikipedia:stable particle\|stable particle]]. The experimental upper limit on the photon mass<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Tu \|first1=Liang-Cheng \|last2=Luo \|first2=Jun \|last3=Gillies \|first3=George T \|date=2005-01-01 \|title=The mass of the photon \|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/68/1/R02 \|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics \|volume=68 \|issue=1 \|pages=77–130 \|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/68/1/R02 \|bibcode=2005RPPh...68...77T \|issn=0034-4885\|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Goldhaber \|first1=Alfred Scharff \|last2=Nieto \|first2=Michael Martin \|date=2010-03-23 \|title=Photon and graviton mass limits \|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 \|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics \|language=en \|volume=82 \|issue=1 \|pages=939–979 \|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 \|issn=0034-6861 \|arxiv=0809.1003 \|bibcode=2010RvMP...82..939G \|access-date=2024-02-01 \|archive-date=2024-05-13 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513012520/https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 \|url-status=live }}</ref> is very small, on the order of 10<sup>−53</sup> g; its lifetime would be more than 10<sup>18</sup> years.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Heeck \|first=Julian \|date=2013-07-11 \|title=How Stable is the Photon? \|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.021801 \|journal=Physical Review Letters \|language=en \|volume=111 \|issue=2 \|article-number=021801 \|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.021801 \|pmid=23889385 \|issn=0031-9007 \|arxiv=1304.2821 \|bibcode=2013PhRvL.111b1801H \|access-date=2024-02-01 \|archive-date=2024-05-13 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513012534/https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.021801 \|url-status=live }}</ref>		Photons are [[Wikipedia:massless particle\|massless]] and can move only at one speed: the <math>c</math>, the [[Wikipedia:speed of light\|speed of light]] in vacuum. The photon belongs to the class of [[Wikipedia:boson\|boson]] particles.<br>The photon has no [[Wikipedia:electric charge\|electric charge]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Frisch \|first1=David H. \|title=Elementary Particles \|last2=Thorndike \|first2=Alan M. \|publisher=[[Wikipedia:David Van Nostrand\|David Van Nostrand]] \|year=1964 \|location=Princeton, New Jersey \|page=22 \|language=en-us \|author1-link=W:David H. Frisch}}</ref><ref name="chargeless">{{cite journal \|last1=Kobychev \|first1=V. V. \|last2=Popov \|first2=S. B. \|year=2005 \|title=Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources \|journal=[[Wikipedia:Astronomy Letters\|Astronomy Letters]] \|volume=31 \|issue=3 \|pages=147–151 \|arxiv=hep-ph/0411398 \|bibcode=2005AstL...31..147K \|doi=10.1134/1.1883345 \|s2cid=119409823}}</ref> is generally considered to have zero [[Wikipedia:rest mass\|rest mass]],<ref>{{cite web \|first=John \|last=Baez \|author-link=W:John Baez \|title=What is the mass of a photon? \|publisher=[[Wikipedia:University of California, Riverside\|U.C. Riverside]] \|type=pers. academic site \|url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/photon_mass.html \|access-date=2009-01-13 \|archive-date=2014-05-31 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531100537/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/photon_mass.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> and is a [[Wikipedia:stable particle\|stable particle]]. The experimental upper limit on the photon mass<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Tu \|first1=Liang-Cheng \|last2=Luo \|first2=Jun \|last3=Gillies \|first3=George T \|date=2005-01-01 \|title=The mass of the photon \|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/68/1/R02 \|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics \|volume=68 \|issue=1 \|pages=77–130 \|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/68/1/R02 \|bibcode=2005RPPh...68...77T \|issn=0034-4885\|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Goldhaber \|first1=Alfred Scharff \|last2=Nieto \|first2=Michael Martin \|date=2010-03-23 \|title=Photon and graviton mass limits \|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 \|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics \|language=en \|volume=82 \|issue=1 \|pages=939–979 \|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 \|issn=0034-6861 \|arxiv=0809.1003 \|bibcode=2010RvMP...82..939G \|access-date=2024-02-01 \|archive-date=2024-05-13 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513012520/https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 \|url-status=live }}</ref> is very small, on the order of 10<sup>−53</sup> g; its lifetime would be more than 10<sup>18</sup> years.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Heeck \|first=Julian \|date=2013-07-11 \|title=How Stable is the Photon? \|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.021801 \|journal=Physical Review Letters \|language=en \|volume=111 \|issue=2 \|article-number=021801 \|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.021801 \|pmid=23889385 \|issn=0031-9007 \|arxiv=1304.2821 \|bibcode=2013PhRvL.111b1801H \|access-date=2024-02-01 \|archive-date=2024-05-13 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513012534/https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.021801 \|url-status=live }}</ref>

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	{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}		{{Short description\|Quantum Collection topic on Quantum Matter Elements and Particles}}

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